![]() Monoamine oxidase, the enzyme that metabolizes dopamine, and dopamine itself can cause lipid peroxidation and the alteration of antioxidant enzymes which can lead to cell death. The result of increased dopamine metabolism is an increase in the production of free radicals. With regard to the oxidative stress hypothesis, antidepressants block dopamine receptors, increasing dopamine synthesis and metabolism. With regard to the dopamine hypothesis, chronic dopamine blockade can result in upregulation of dopamine receptor responsiveness that can result in an exaggerated response of the postsynaptic dopamine receptors to dopamine. Several hypotheses have been proposed that include prolonged blockade of postsynaptic dopamine receptors leading to dopamine receptor supersensitivity, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) depletion, cholinergic deficiency, oxidative stress, altered synaptic plasticity, neurotoxicity, and defective neuroadaptive signaling. ![]() The pathophysiology of TD lacks a universally accepted theory and mechanism. In this review based on our literature search, we discuss the pathophysiology and epidemiology of TD, medications that can induce TD, possible solutions for preventing TD, and treatments for managing TD and for managing TD symptoms while a patient is concurrently taking an APD. The search terms we used to gather this information included tardive dyskinesia, medication-induced tardive dyskinesia, neuroleptics, antipsychotics, typical antipsychotics, atypical antipsychotics, antiemetics, anticholinergics, antidepressants, anticonvulsants, antihistamines, antiparkinson agents, stimulants, anxiolytics, biogenic amines, mood stabilizers, oral contraceptives, incidence, prevalence, dopamine, oxidative stress, pharmacokinetic, genetic polymorphisms, gastroparesis, history, case study, epidemiology, pathophysiology, etiology, prevention, and treatment. We attempted to include as many recent (publication date of 2015 and later) articles as possible. We conducted a PubMed search using keywords and combined word searches that involved medication-induced TD as well as agents that are associated with causing or are used to treat medication-induced TD. Of course, patients need to take the medications that are causing the unwanted side effect of TD therefore, stopping the medication can be dangerous and may even induce further complications. In many patients, TD is irreversible and can persist long after the medications that may be causing the symptoms are stopped. And while many of the non-APD medications that cause TD directly or indirectly affect dopamine neurotransmission, emerging evidence suggests that isolating the definition of a TD diagnosis to dopamine agonists only is incorrect. While the DSM-V definition of TD is helpful in diagnosing dopamine antagonist–related TD, this definition falls short of the wide range of medications that can also cause TD, especially because only one of the several hypotheses for why TD occurs involves dopamine. 2 In all cases, TD must persist for at least 1 month after a medication is discontinued for a TD diagnosis. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-V) classifies TD as a medication-induced movement disorder that can develop after short-term and long-term use of medications, as well as after discontinuation of, change in, or reduction in medications. 1 However, TD is also associated with a wide variety of other medications. In fact, TD occurs in 20%-50% of patients taking APDs. TD most generally occurs in individuals who are on long-term treatment with dopaminergic antagonist medications (antipsychotic drugs ). The tardive dyskinesia (TD) form of dyskinesia gets its name from the slow-or tardive-onset of involuntary movements of the face, lips, tongue, trunk, and extremities. CFCC will share updates via CFCC Alerts, CFCC email, on, and on social media feeds.The term dyskinesia refers to involuntary muscle movements that can range from slight tremor to uncontrollable movement of the entire body. Updates and Further InformationĬFCC will continue to monitor weather conditions reported by the National Weather Service and in collaboration with local and state agencies. Additional enrollment events will be scheduled after the storm passes. However, the virtual One-Stop Enrollment event scheduled for Tuesday, Aug. Students who would like to register for the fall 2020 semester can still do so via. Online classes will continue as scheduled, however, students experiencing connectivity issues due to the storm should contact their instructors as soon as possible. 4 due to Inclement WeatherĬape Fear Community College will close at all campus locations for students, faculty, and staff in anticipation of inclement weather resulting from hurricane/tropical storm Isaias beginning noon Monday, Aug. Weather Alert CFCC to Close at Noon Monday, Aug.
0 Comments
Leave a Reply. |
AuthorWrite something about yourself. No need to be fancy, just an overview. ArchivesCategories |